Aryans and the Vedic Period – Vedic Literature, Rig Vedic to Later Vedic Age, Polity, Society, Economy and Varna System

After the decline of the Harappan Civilisation, a new culture took shape in north-western India. It is known as the Vedic culture, because almost everything we know about it comes from the Vedas – the oldest literature of India. The people who composed these texts called themselves Aryans. The Vedic Age (about 1500 BCE to 600 BCE) laid the foundation of Indian religion, philosophy, social structure and political institutions. This article covers the full WBCS / SSC / State PSC syllabus on the topic.

Who Were the Aryans?

The word "Arya" means "noble" or "cultured". In the Vedic texts it is used for people who spoke an Indo-European language (the ancestor of Sanskrit) and followed Vedic rituals. "Aryan" is thus mainly a linguistic and cultural term, not a racial one.

Sanskrit belongs to the Indo-European family of languages, which also includes Greek, Latin, Persian (Avestan), German and English. Words such as pitar (Sanskrit), pater (Latin) and father (English) show this common origin.

Original Home of the Aryans – Main Theories

The question is still debated. Many historians hold that Indo-Aryan speakers entered the north-west of the subcontinent in several phases around the middle of the second millennium BCE and gradually mixed with the existing population, while others argue that Vedic culture developed within India itself. For exams, the Central Asia theory of Max Müller is the most commonly asked answer.

Boghazkoi Inscription (c. 1400 BCE): Found in Turkey (Asia Minor), it records a treaty between the Hittite and Mitanni kings and invokes the Vedic gods Indra, Mitra, Varuna and the Nasatyas. It is important evidence of the spread of Indo-Aryan gods and language in West Asia.

Periods of the Vedic Age

Expansion of the Aryans in India

Rig Vedic Period: The Land of Seven Rivers (Sapta Sindhu)

The early Aryans lived in the region of Sapta Sindhu – the land of seven rivers – covering present-day eastern Afghanistan, Punjab and Haryana. The Rig Veda mentions about 40 rivers.

• Sindhu (Indus) is the most frequently mentioned river.
• Saraswati was the most sacred river, called "Naditama" – the best of rivers.
• Ganga is mentioned only once and Yamuna three times in the Rig Veda – showing that the early Aryans had not yet moved far east.

Later Vedic Period: Movement Towards the East

• The Aryans moved east into the Ganga–Yamuna doab and beyond, to Kosala (Awadh) and Videha (north Bihar).
• The Shatapatha Brahmana tells the story of Videgha Mathava, who carried the sacred fire (Agni) eastward across the river Sadanira (Gandak). This is seen as a symbol of the clearing of forests by fire and the spread of Vedic culture to the east.
• The Kuru and Panchala kingdoms became the centre of Vedic culture. The Kurus had their capital at Hastinapur (Meerut district).
• The use of iron (from about 1000 BCE) made it easier to clear dense forests and plough heavy soils.
• The archaeological culture of this period is called Painted Grey Ware (PGW), found at sites like Hastinapur, Atranjikhera and Ahichchhatra.
• Towards the end of the period, the Aryans also knew of the Vindhyas, and regions such as Magadha and Anga were on the edge of the Vedic world.

Vedic Literature: Religious and Philosophical Texts

Vedic literature is called Shruti ("that which is heard"), because it was believed to have been revealed to the sages and was passed down orally for centuries. The word Veda comes from vid, meaning "to know". The Vedas were compiled by Krishna Dvaipayana Vyasa according to tradition.

Vedic literature has four layers: Samhitas (the four Vedas) → Brahmanas → Aranyakas → Upanishads.

The Four Vedas

Important Facts from the Rig Veda

• The Gayatri Mantra is in the 3rd mandala; it is addressed to the Sun god Savitri and was composed by Vishvamitra.
• The 9th mandala is entirely devoted to Soma.
• The 10th mandala contains the Purusha Sukta, which first mentions the four varnas, and the Nasadiya Sukta (Hymn of Creation).
• The Battle of Ten Kings (Dasarajna) is described in the 7th mandala.

Brahmanas

Prose texts that explain the meaning of Vedic hymns and give detailed rules for sacrifices.

Aranyakas

"Forest texts" written for hermits living in forests. They form a bridge between the ritual-based Brahmanas and the philosophy of the Upanishads, and deal with the inner meaning of rituals and meditation.

Upanishads – the Philosophical Texts

• The Upanishads come at the end of the Vedas, so they are called Vedanta ("end of the Vedas").
• Traditionally there are 108 Upanishads; about 13 are considered principal.
• They shift the focus from rituals to knowledge (jnana) and discuss Brahman (the Supreme Reality), Atman (the self or soul), karma, rebirth and moksha (liberation).
• The Brihadaranyaka and Chandogya are among the oldest. The Brihadaranyaka records the discussions of the women philosophers Gargi and Maitreyi with the sage Yajnavalkya.
• India's national motto "Satyameva Jayate" (Truth alone triumphs) is taken from the Mundaka Upanishad.
• The Katha Upanishad contains the famous dialogue between Nachiketa and Yama (god of death) about the soul.

Vedangas and Upavedas (Supplementary Literature)

The six Vedangas ("limbs of the Vedas") were developed to help understand and use the Vedas correctly. They belong to Smriti literature (remembered tradition).

Rig Vedic Period (c. 1500 – 1000 BCE)

Political Life

• Society was tribal. The tribe was called Jana, and its chief was the Rajan. The word jana occurs far more often in the Rig Veda than janapada (territory), which does not appear at all.
• The Rajan was mainly a leader in war and protector of the tribe and its cattle. His post was not fully hereditary, and he did not have absolute power.
• Tribal assemblies checked the power of the chief:
  • Sabha – a smaller council of elders and important people.
  • Samiti – a larger assembly of the people, which may have chosen the chief.
  • Vidatha – the oldest assembly, with religious, military and distributive functions. Women took part in the Sabha and Vidatha.
  • Gana – another tribal group / assembly.
• Officials: Purohita (chief priest and adviser – e.g., Vasishtha and Vishvamitra), Senani (army chief) and Gramani (head of the village, originally of a fighting unit).
• There was no regular tax. People gave the chief a voluntary offering called "bali".
• There was no standing army; tribes fought mostly over cattle. War was called "Gavishti" – literally "search for cows".

Main tribes: Bharatas, Purus, Yadus, Turvasas, Anus and Druhyus. India is called "Bharatvarsha" after the Bharata tribe.

Battle of Ten Kings (Dasarajna Yuddha): Fought on the banks of the Parushni (Ravi). King Sudas of the Bharata tribe, advised by the priest Vasishtha, defeated a confederacy of ten kings, who were supported by Vishvamitra. It is described in the 7th mandala of the Rig Veda.

Social Life

• The family (kula) was the basic unit of society and was patriarchal; the father was the head (kulapa or grihapati). People wished mainly for brave sons and cattle.
• Units of society: Kula (family) → Grama (village / group of families) → Vis (clan) → Jana (tribe).
• Varna at first meant colour; the Aryans distinguished themselves from the Dasas and Dasyus. Society was divided by occupation, not birth, and movement between occupations was possible. A famous verse in the 9th mandala says: "I am a poet, my father is a physician and my mother grinds corn."
• The division into four varnas appears only at the end of the period, in the Purusha Sukta of the 10th mandala.

Position of Women

• Women enjoyed a respectable position. They could attend assemblies and take part in sacrifices with their husbands.
• Girls received education; women such as Apala, Ghosha, Lopamudra and Vishvavara composed Vedic hymns.
• There is no evidence of child marriage; the usual age of marriage was 16–17. Widow remarriage and the custom of niyoga (levirate) were known.
• The purdah and sati systems did not exist.

Economic Life

• The Rig Vedic people were mainly pastoral – cattle rearing was the chief occupation, and wealth was counted in cows. Many words come from go (cow): gavishti (war), gopati (chief), godhuli (a measure of time), duhitri (daughter, "one who milks").
• Agriculture was known but was secondary; barley (yava) was the main crop.
• The horse was very important for chariots and war.
• Craftsmen included carpenters, chariot-makers, weavers, leather workers and potters. Ayas probably meant copper or bronze.
• Trade was by barter. The cow was the main measure of value; Nishka, a gold ornament, was also used in exchange. There were no coins.

Religion

• The Rig Vedic people worshipped the forces of nature as gods. Worship was done through prayers (hymns) and simple sacrifices; there were no temples and no idol worship.
• They prayed mainly for material benefits – cattle, sons, victory and long life – not for salvation.

Later Vedic Period (c. 1000 – 600 BCE)

Political Life and the Evolution of Monarchy

• Tribes merged to form bigger units, and territorial kingdoms appeared. The word Rashtra (territory/kingdom) and Janapada came into use. Kingdoms such as Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Kashi and Videha became powerful.
• The king's power grew and his position became hereditary in most cases.
• Kings performed grand sacrifices to show their power:
  • Rajasuya – royal consecration; gave supreme power to the king.
  • Ashvamedha – horse sacrifice; the king claimed all the land over which the horse roamed unchallenged.
  • Vajapeya – chariot race in which the king was made to win against his kinsmen.
• The king took titles such as Samrat, Ekarat, Virat and Bhoja, which show the growth of royal authority. The Aitareya Brahmana links kingship with the gods choosing a king to lead them in war.
• The Sabha and Samiti lost their importance, the Vidatha disappeared, and women were no longer allowed in the Sabha.
• Taxes became regular. Bali, bhaga and shulka were collected, mainly from the Vaishyas. The Sangrihitri (treasurer) and Bhagadugha (tax collector) managed revenue.
• Still, there was no regular standing army; tribal units were gathered in times of war.

Ratnins – the King's Officials

The Ratnins ("jewels") were important officials and royal household members who took part in the king's consecration (Rajasuya). They included:

Social Life and the Evolution of the Varna System

• Society was clearly divided into four varnas – Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.
• Varna became based on birth rather than occupation, and it became more rigid.
• Brahmanas grew powerful because of the importance of sacrifices; Kshatriyas were rulers and warriors; Vaishyas did farming, cattle rearing and trade and were the main taxpayers; Shudras served the three higher varnas.
• The first three varnas were called Dvija ("twice-born") because they were entitled to the Upanayana (sacred thread ceremony). Shudras and women were denied Upanayana.
• The institution of Gotra (descent from a common ancestor) appeared, and marriage within the same gotra was forbidden.
• The Ashrama system (four stages of life) took shape: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (retirement to the forest) and Sannyasa (renunciation). The first three are mentioned in the Chandogya Upanishad; the fourth became established in later texts.

Position of Women

• The status of women declined. They lost the right to attend assemblies, and daughters were sometimes seen as a source of worry.
• Some women still achieved great learning – Gargi and Maitreyi took part in philosophical debates.

Economic Life

• Agriculture became the main occupation. Large ploughs drawn by many oxen are mentioned in the Shatapatha Brahmana.
• Use of iron, called Shyama Ayas or Krishna Ayas ("black metal"), spread from about 1000 BCE.
• Crops: rice (vrihi), wheat (godhuma), barley, lentils, sesame. Rice became the staple in the Ganga valley.
• New crafts and professions developed – metalworkers, jewellers, dyers, potters and weavers. Guilds (shreni) of traders began to form.
• Trade expanded; Nishka, Shatamana and Krishnala were used as units of value, but regular coins had not yet appeared.
• People lived in permanent villages; towns like Hastinapur and Kaushambi appeared at the very end of the period.

Religion

• The old gods Indra and Agni lost their importance. Prajapati (the creator) became the supreme god; Vishnu (preserver) and Rudra (later Shiva) rose in importance. Pushan, protector of cattle, became the god of the Shudras.
• Sacrifices became long, costly and complicated, and the Brahmanas controlled them. Gifts (dakshina) of cows, gold and land to priests increased.
• Towards the end of the period, a strong reaction began against excessive rituals and priestly dominance. The Upanishads stressed knowledge, meditation and the unity of Atman and Brahman. This reaction later prepared the ground for Jainism and Buddhism in the 6th century BCE.

Transformation from Rig Vedic to Later Vedic Period

Significance of the Vedic Age

• Foundation of Indian religion and philosophy: concepts such as dharma, karma, rebirth, Atman and Brahman, and the six schools of Indian philosophy, trace their roots to Vedic literature.
• Sanskrit language and literature: the Vedas are among the oldest surviving texts in any Indo-European language and were preserved orally with remarkable accuracy.
• Social institutions: the varna, ashrama, gotra and samskara (life-cycle rituals) systems took shape in this age and shaped Indian society for centuries.
• Political ideas: the transition from tribe to territorial kingdom, the idea of royal consecration and early assemblies like the Sabha and Samiti mark the beginnings of state formation in India.
• Science and knowledge: the Vedangas laid the foundation of phonetics, grammar, astronomy and geometry (the Shulba Sutras contain rules for building fire altars).
• Music and medicine: the Sama Veda is seen as the root of Indian music, and the Atharva Veda contains early medical knowledge that later grew into Ayurveda.
• Path to new religions: the reaction against ritualism in the Upanishads prepared the ground for Jainism and Buddhism.

Quick Revision Points

• Vedic Age: 1500–600 BCE; Rig Vedic: 1500–1000 BCE; Later Vedic: 1000–600 BCE.
• Rig Veda: 10 mandalas, 1028 hymns; Gayatri Mantra in the 3rd mandala; Purusha Sukta in the 10th.
• Most mentioned river: Sindhu; most sacred: Saraswati (Naditama).
• Battle of Ten Kings: on the Parushni (Ravi); Sudas of the Bharatas won.
• Most important Rig Vedic god: Indra; Later Vedic: Prajapati.
• "Satyameva Jayate" – Mundaka Upanishad.
• Sabha and Samiti – "two daughters of Prajapati" (Atharva Veda).
• Iron = Shyama / Krishna Ayas; Later Vedic pottery = Painted Grey Ware.
• Origin of Indian music: Sama Veda; charms and medicine: Atharva Veda.
• Largest Brahmana: Shatapatha Brahmana.

Practice MCQs

1. How many mandalas are there in the Rig Veda?
(a) 8
(b) 10
(c) 12
(d) 9

2. The Gayatri Mantra is found in which mandala of the Rig Veda?
(a) First
(b) Third
(c) Seventh
(d) Tenth

3. The four varnas are first mentioned in:
(a) Atharva Veda
(b) Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda
(c) Chandogya Upanishad
(d) Shatapatha Brahmana

4. Which river is described as "Naditama" in the Rig Veda?
(a) Sindhu
(b) Ganga
(c) Saraswati
(d) Yamuna

5. The Battle of Ten Kings was fought on the banks of:
(a) Vitasta
(b) Parushni
(c) Asikni
(d) Sutudri

6. "Satyameva Jayate" has been taken from:
(a) Katha Upanishad
(b) Mundaka Upanishad
(c) Rig Veda
(d) Bhagavad Gita

7. Which Veda is considered the source of Indian classical music?
(a) Rig Veda
(b) Yajur Veda
(c) Sama Veda
(d) Atharva Veda

8. In the Later Vedic period, the most important god became:
(a) Indra
(b) Agni
(c) Varuna
(d) Prajapati

9. The pottery associated with the Later Vedic period is:
(a) Black and Red Ware
(b) Painted Grey Ware
(c) Northern Black Polished Ware
(d) Ochre Coloured Pottery

10. Which assembly disappeared in the Later Vedic period?
(a) Sabha
(b) Samiti
(c) Vidatha
(d) Gana

11. Who wrote "The Arctic Home in the Vedas"?
(a) Max Müller
(b) Dayanand Saraswati
(c) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
(d) R.G. Bhandarkar

12. The Boghazkoi inscription, which mentions Vedic gods, was found in:
(a) Iran
(b) Turkey
(c) Iraq
(d) Afghanistan

Answers: 1 – (b) | 2 – (b) | 3 – (b) | 4 – (c) | 5 – (b) | 6 – (b) | 7 – (c) | 8 – (d) | 9 – (b) | 10 – (c) | 11 – (c) | 12 – (b)

Reference: R.S. Sharma, India's Ancient Past (and the NCERT Ancient India); NCERT History Class XII, Themes in Indian History – Part I.